Literature Review Essay Example

Literature Review Essay This review covers reading as a subject generally and also in L 2 environment. It further considers the various models of reading propounded by researchers and authors.   It also takes a look at differences between a reading strategy and a reading skill. It then outlines and classifies the various learning strategies in use. Specifically, it reviews strategies for reading, pre-reading, while reading and post-reading. It also delves into the strategies good readers use to get by. It further reviews available literature on strategic reading and teaching of reading strategies. The last segment of the review is devoted to difficulties encountered in teaching reading strategies.1.0 Reading:Reading as a subject has been defined in several ways by different people and organizations. WorldNet (2007) has defined reading in seven distinct ways. Two of the definitions relevant to our subject matter are given below:-a.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Reading is the â€Å" cognitive process of underst anding a written linguistic message†b.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Reading is a â€Å" mental representation of the meaning or significance of something†According to the Encyclopaedia, an adult reader can read and understand between 200 -1000 words per minute. Catherine Walter (2003), on the other hand, has given 300 words per minute as the optimal rate for processing prose. She added that for fluent adult readers, this rate is constant, regardless of whether the text was difficult or not.   Generally for young readers, the ability of one to read often depends on the rate of fixation of one’s eye on the words being read and also the difficulty of the material being. Reading is a core subject given greater emphasis in most schools throughout the world.2.0     Models of Reading:Two kinds (models) of processing are distinguishable in reading. These are the bottom-up processes and the Top-down processes. The former involves those that take in stimuli from the outside w orld in the form of letters and words for reading. Adherents of this theory (bottom up processing) focus on how readers extract information from the printed page. Whereas the latter, the uptake of information is guided by an individual’s prior knowledge and expectations. Proponents of this theory posits that readers form hypothesis about which words they would encounter and take in only enough visual information to test their hypothesis.   Acceptance or rejection of a given text is based primarily on what their formed hypothesis is all about. If the formed hypothesis is consistent with what has been read the material is readily accepted. On the other hand, if the read material is not in congruent, the material may be rejected. In practice, she added that, both processes (bottom-up and top-down) are tapped into to facilitate accurate and rapid processing of information.3.0     Reading in second language (L2):Studies undertaken by Schoonen, Hulstijn and Bosser (1998) on D utch learners of the English language revealed that as proficiency grew, meta-cognitive knowledge contributed to a greater extent to reading comprehension skill acquisition. They further added that knowledge of textual characteristics and reading strategies played greater role in supporting the comprehension gained from reading. Sheory Mokhtari (2001) called their tool the â€Å"Survey of Reading Strategies† (SORS). In one of their studies, they assessed the differences in reading strategies between native speakers (US) and non-native speakers of English. The study revealed that ESL students reported a higher usage of strategies to get by than their US counterparts. Also, the ESL students reported using a greater number of supportive reading strategies. As an entire group, however, the study showed no significant gender differences. On the other hand, the female ESL students admitted using the strategy of underlining information in the text more their male colleagues (ESL stu dents). Interestingly, students who gave themselves higher scores for reading ability also reported using a higher frequency of reading strategies than those readers who gave themselves a lower rating.Catherine Walter (2003) has pointed out that less skilled L2 readers do not necessarily have fewer strategies than skilled readers, but that they are less able to choose the most appropriate strategy for the problem at hand. On the basis of this knowledge, this author counselled teachers to help learners become aware of the strategies they use sometimes unknowingly when reading as well as other strategies available to them and how these strategies can be used selectively. From this account, we can learn that the problem with L2 readers are not so much about the lack of knowledge of reading strategies   but more importantly the ability to apply the most appropriate reading strategy for a given problem.   According to Catherine Walter (2003) several studies involving L2 students have confirmed that those of them who engaged in extensive reading over a period of time showed significantly more improvement in L2 writing skills than the control groups, who did not practice extensive reading of any kind. She attributed this effect to the unconscious acquisition of the rhetorical conventions of L2 written genres.4.0     Reading Strategy   versus   Skill:Reading strategy is the plan the reader adopts to accomplish a given reading goal. Reading skills, on the other hand, is the reading ability acquired that enables the reader achieves a given reading goal. There are four strategies of reading a material effectively. First, they change their reading speed depending on the difficulty of the material. Secondly, they show a greater tendency to re-read the material, especially when the reading material is considered â€Å"hard†. Thirdly, good readers set for themselves a definite purpose for reading a given material. Fourthly, they ask themselves questions as they read the material. These strategies enable them to look for definite answers from the given text. Furthermore, it also increases their concentration and ability to draw meaning from the material read. They endeavour to visualize what the author is seeking to convey to them from the reading material.What separates good or successful readers from the poor ones often lies in the ability of the former to solve problems that relate to (a) difficult words (b) distractions (c) disagreements with the author (d) nervousness (e) lack of prior knowledge of the subject matter being read and (f) lack of definite purpose.With regards to difficult words, good readers try to re-read the previous sentence before them or try to substitute them to gain comprehension. Another means they employ to overcome difficult vocabulary is to write it down and find its meaning, as writing itself is a good way for recalling information read.The internet has become part and parcel of the daily lives of many p ersons including L2 readers. Recognizing the increasing importance this information and communication medium plays in the lives of L2 readers, Anderson (2003) carried out a study to find out (a) The online reading strategies employed by second language readers. (b) Whether online reading strategies of English as a second language readers (ESL) differ from English as a foreign language reader (EFL). He found the under listed as the top twelve reading strategies most widely used. Of these strategies, eight (67 percent) were problem-solving ones, whilst the other four (33 percent) were global reading strategies.(a)   I try to get back on track when I lose concentration (problem-solving strategy).(b) When on-line text becomes difficult, I pay closer attention to what I am reading (problem-solving strategy).(c) I read slowly and carefully to make sure I understand what I am reading online (problem-solving strategy)(d) When I read online, I guess the meaning of unknown words or phrases (problem-solving strategy)(e) I try to guess what the content of the online text is about when I read (Global strategy(f) I think about what I know to help me understand what I read online (Global strategy(g) I can distinguish between fact and opinion in online texts (Problem-solving strategy(h) I try to picture or visualize information to help me remember what I read online (Problem-solving strategy)(I) When reading online, I decide what to read closely and what to ignore (Global strategy)(j) I adjust my reading online (Problem-solving strategy)(k) I scan the online text to get a basic idea of whether it will serve my purposes before choosing to read it (Global strategy).This research worker also found that the only significant difference between EFL and ESL readers were in the use of problem-solving strategies. The former group reported a higher use of problem-solving strategies than their counterparts. The predominant reason assigned to these findings was that the differences bet ween ERL and ESL learning environments were diminishing with the advent of the internet, the increased use of Radio, television and other information and communication technologies.5.0 Classification of learning strategies:Cohen (1996) has drawn attention to the fact that the differences in criteria of classification often cause inconsistencies and mismatches across existing taxonomies and other categorizations. According to Cohen (1996) some strategies are behavioural and can be directly observed, whereas others are mental and behavioural but which are not observable. There are other learning strategies that are purely mental. He also added that another approach by which learning strategies can be classified is to label them as belonging to ‘successful’ or ‘unsuccessful’ learners. Strategies are also distinguishable from one another according to whether they are cognitive, meta-cognitive, affective or social.6.0 Strategic Reading:Strategic reading simply m eans purposeful reading. This is the reading in which the reader adjusts his reading to a specific purpose he has in mind. He uses a variety of strategies and skills to pawn out meaning from what he is being read. According to Eduplace (2007) a strategy is a plan selected deliberately by the reader to accomplish a specific goal or complete a given task. When narrowed to the subject of reading, it means having a deliberate plan to accomplish a specific reading goal. When a reader or student is capable in selecting the use of strategy unconsciously, he achieves expertise in using that strategy (Eduplace, 2007). Apart from strategies, Eduplace (2007) affirms that expert readers use a number of comprehension and study skills to grasp meaning from the material being read. Research has shown that readers develop reading skills and strategies 7.0 Teaching reading Strategy:Reading strategies can be taught and learnt. When reading strategies are well grasped by the student or reader, they ar e able to draw meaning from what they read quickly. Reading in this wise become profitable. What sets good readers apart from poor ones are the strategies they adopt before, during and after reading. Whereas poor readers start reading without giving forethought to the reading process and topic, good readers make a deliberate effort to build their own prior knowledge about the topic. Zimmermann and Hutchins (2003) have identified seven strategies used by good readers to unlock meaning from a given text. These are: (a) They create mental images and also become emotionally involved with what they read (b) They use their relevant prior knowledge before, during and after reading to enhance their understanding of what they have read (c) They ask relevant questions to clarify meaning and also pay particular attention to what is important (d)They identify key ideas or themes as they read (f) They also synthesis information (g) They use fix-up strategies such as re-reading, skipping ahead, a sking questions, using a dictionary. These authors further pointed out that good readers use the same strategies whether they reading ‘soft’ material such as a magazine or a ‘hard’ text such as textbook. The goal of all reading instruction therefore is to help the student overcome reading difficulties and ultimately become expert readers. By becoming expert readers, it enables the student achieve independence and use the literacy for life-long learning. Taberski (2000) has described the strategies for teaching reading in primary schools. He presented a material organized around a series of interconnected interactions with the learner as assessment, demonstration, practice and response. He outlined the role of the teacher in this approach, how to set up the classroom environment, how to assess reading and also showed how effective strategies and skills could be demonstrated.8.0   Difficulties in   teaching reading strategies:Many researchers and authors have acknowledged the difficulties in teaching reading strategies (Anderson, 1999; Beers, 2003). Bereiter and Bird (1985) reported that analysis of protocols from adults thinking aloud while reading identified four potentially teachable strategies. This study involved eighty students in grades seven and eight. They found that neither strategy modelling and practice alone, nor question and answer comprehension activities were effective. They confirmed that even in the successful group, instruction was effective with only three of the strategies. Recounting her own trials and tribulations when helping seventh grade students to learn to read, Beers (2003) considered the difficulties involved in teaching reading strategies to students or pupils. She pointed out that even with high-quality reading instruction in the early grades, it is necessary for middle and high school teachers to help students refine, practice and in some cases, develop the skills of readers.According to Anderson (19 99) developing a personal philosophy of teaching can be difficult to many a teacher, if not totally elusive. He offered help with a philosophy built around the word ACTIVE, which serves as the organizing mnemonic. ACTIVE consists of the first letters of six of the eight elements of this approach as: A – Activate prior knowledge C – Cultivate vocabulary T – Teach for comprehension I – Increase reading rate V – Verify reading strategies E – Evaluate progress.The last two elements are: Consider the role of motivation and select the appropriate materials. Clearly, teachers that adopt this procedure can overcome some of the difficulties encountered in teaching reading strategies.Difficulties in teaching reading strategies can be traced to two sources, namely from the teachers’ end in impacting the knowledge in a manner that is easily understandable to the student and also from the student’s end in grasping the knowledge being impact ed. Clay (1985) has outlined ways and means by which reading difficulties of such students or pupils can be detected early and helped. She counselled that through systematic observation of reading behaviours and reading recovery procedures, such children could be helped with their reading problems. Hatcher, Hulme and Ellis (1994) reported of a study involving children experiencing difficulties in the early stages. They divided these seven year old poor readers into four groups and assigned them to one of three experimental teaching conditions such as (a) Reading with phonology (b) Reading alone (c) Phonology alone and (d) A control. They found that although the phonology alone group showed most improvement on phonological tasks, the reading with phonology group made most progress in reading. They concluded from the findings that interventions to boost phonological skills should be integrated with the teaching of reading if they are to be maximally effective in improving literacy ski lls. Literature Review Essay Example Literature Review Essay According to Krauth, (1996), punishment usually involves the deliberate incision of ache, misery or the removal of rights and/or freedom. Basically, these actions are definitely wrong. However, our society/community are using these methods particularly in law-breaking issues to maintain peace and order. The community gives punishment to avoid crimes and violence. The people are encouraged to be vigilant and to disclose any information pertinent to the occurrence of violent offenses (Krauth, 1996). Krauth, (1996) cited that a number of communities in some parts of the world have attempted to develop community-based crime prevention strategies as supplemental action for the government’s efforts in giving punishment. Basically, punishment of offenders in society is a wide context, thus to narrow the context this review will cover only the role and effect of punishment in shaping the behavior of an individual; i.e. parenting and learning strategies which summarizes the studies con ducted by Ballantine, J. (2001), Moeller (2001), and Hill (1990).On the other hand, in the report of Hyman and Zelikoff (1987), the issues regarding the worst result of punishment to an individual i.e. trauma is also reviewed. In follow up to this, Bartol (1995) identifies the possible bad result of punishment i.e. aggression. The report concerning the theories of behavior in accordance to learning behavior were further discussed in the paper of Slavin (1995), Kounin (1970), Skinner (1974), Thorndike (1912) and Pavlov, (1927).     During our childhood days, our parent usually imposed punishment to us if we got mistakes. Actually, this punishment affects our development as a child.   It could have either positive or negative effects. And of the negative effects of it is aggression (Bartol 1995). With this regard, this review of literature also seeks to realize why people permit the legitimation of this type of infiltration.   Thus, it evaluates the reason behind why disciplin e relies on punishment and negative consequences to improve child’s behavior.   Punishment also affects the education and learning behavior of a child, thus we will also cover issues of punishment in school setting.ReviewIn the study conducted by Ballantine, J. (2001; p.46), he argued that parents usually give punishment to their children just to discipline them. However, parents should be cautious in giving punishment. This might cause physical, emotional and mental problems or this may also results to rebellious behavior or worst a trauma. Research has long proven that the parenting styles adopted by parents often have a great impact on the development of the child (e.g. Ballantine, J. 2001; p.46).Ballantine, J. (2001; p.46) stated that there are three basic parenting styles i.e. authoritative, authoritarian and permissive styles. Basically, Ballantine, J. (2001) stated that authoritarian parents tend to control their offspring. Also, they are very demanding and have high expectations for their children. But also, they tend to be less responsive to their children’s needs. They rely very heavily on punishment. Authoritative parents, on the other hand, though also very demanding, gain the favor of their children by being highly responsive as well. They have clear definitions on the limitations and freedom of their children. They are also very supportive and give out punishment but explain the reasons for the action. Permissive parents are the opposite of authoritarian parents. They require les of their children but still is very responsive to them, they are often very lenient and don’t, if possible give out punishments. The uninvolved parents are also opposite of authoritative parents. As the name suggests, they are really uninvolved with their children. Often, they are very apathetic to the happenings in their children’s lives. They put a very high risk on their children since they do not put a defined line on what they expect of their children.Parenting styles differ and have profound effects in child development. According to Ballantine, J. (2001; p. 46), parenting styles that involve punishment trigger aggression in children, and then the aggression in children continue on to their own children, thus, resulting in an endless and vicious cycle.But just what is aggression? According to Bartol (1995; p.184), aggression is a â€Å"behavior perpetrated or attempted with the intention of harming another individual physically or psychologically (as opposed to socially) or to destroy an object† (p. 184). According to Moeller (2001), agreement to Bartol (1995; p. 2), defines aggression as an act to that has intent to harm another object or person.Aggression as effect of punishments can either be physical or psychological (Bartol 1995; p. 2 and Moeller, 2001). Many factors point to a child’s aggression, one of which is parenting styles adopted by parents. Actually, if the child is constantly exposed to excessive punishments, it is most likely that the child would be inclining to aggressive behavior. Punishment is actually a form of aggression that can very well make the child inclined to aggression himself. If the child is repeatedly treated aggressively or punished excessively by his parents would most likely resort to aggression later on.As shown in the study of Hill (1990; pp. 70-77), punishment is also observed in schools or in any learning situation. Hill (1990; pp. 70-77) claimed that reliance on such measures i.e. punishment have negative effects on the learners. In all styles of teaching and classroom management, there are proper ways of carrying out the strategies so that the ends to these styles may be met (Hill 1990; pp. 70-77). In the case of assertion as added by Meyer, A. (1990), there are positive and negative methods of reinforcing these strategies. As students’ behavior vary, the teachers’ delicate role is to determine which would work best for th e particular students. Basically, Meyer, A. (1990) stated that learners will react differently to situations, and if every positive method does not work out with them, then negative reinforcement is called for. This is not to become unfair to the students. This is just to show them that there are regulations to be observed and authorities to be respected, as that virtue will better prepare them for life outside the confines of the school. There is no perfect way of teaching and classroom management. There are only receptive teachers who are attuned to individual students’ needs, thus a successful implementation of the assertive style of teaching and classroom management (Meyer, A. 1990).In the report of Hill (1990; pp. 70-77) on an incident in preschool in which punishment was used to help children learn to obey rules. One of the punishment procedures was to write the name of the offending child on the board the first time non-compliance with rules occurred. The goal is impre ssive in that it make the most of learning time, but there were some unintentional depressing side effects. In this case, a child told to his parents the list of names of bad kids in the class, and the child also described how they were being reprimanded. The child also told to her parents that these kids had their names written on the board. In relation to this, the child asked his parents if being with the kids would make him become one of them.   From the child’s story, the mother decided to visit the school where she found a group of 5 and 6 year olds trying not to speak or move. As the parent observed, the teacher was diligently using rewards and punishment to mould the behavior of children. But every time a child giggled or laugh extremely or spoke without permission, another name went on the board. As the result, most of boys who came from families of lower socioeconomic background are found on that board (Hill 1990; pp. 70-77).From the results of the study of Hill ( 1990; pp. 70-77), it appears evident that what the child had absorbed from their punishment experiences, either vicariously or literally, was to spotlight on the manners that the teacher found unpleasant. The children tend to avoid such behavior at all costs, even if it is annoying just to impress the teacher instead of attending to the learning activities.As part of the giving punishment in shaping the behavior of the child, classroom management as stated by (Slavin, 2005; p. 1) in his paper should be observed. One characteristic of effective classroom management introduced by Slavin is that it involves a clear, specific plan of classroom rules and procedures that would guide performance (Slavin, 2005; p. 1).   There was also a reward and punishment system observed.   According to the teachers in the report of (Slavin, 2005; p. 1), every student was treated without bias but recognition was given to the most deserving and punishment was also implemented to address misbehavior. P raise or exemptions from some projects were the usual rewards given to performing students. The usual punishments were extra assignment, reprimand, or in worst case, detention.   The purpose of the reward and punishment system was to delineate the acceptable behavior from the unacceptable. Praise i.e. â€Å"catching the students in the act of doing right†, can be a powerful motivator for many students. One strategy for reducing misbehavior in class is to make sure to praise students for behaviors that are incompatible with the misbehavior you want to reduce (Slavin , 2005; p.1).In relation to this, Kounin (1970; p. 10) justified that the transfer of pupil attention to the child being punished is a usual phenomenon, and almost always results in less attention, rather than more, being paid to the desired learning outcomes. Every so often, the teachers intent to help a child alter a behavior to one which is more acceptable to both the youngster and his superiors has tragic seq uelae. Educators using disciplinary procedures perceived by the child as stringent and unfeeling can cause trauma. According to Hyman and Zelikoff (1987; pp. 1-2), the symptoms of this trauma are often similar to those observed in adults with Post Traumatic Stress Disorders. Symptoms seen in children include somatic complaints, avoidance of school, and sleep disturbances.As Skinner (1974; p. 18) emphasized a behavior which is followed a positive reinforcing motivation or circumstance will result in an increased tendency or probability that the person will repeat such behavior, this concept also operates in the opposite direction wherein the person will have a decreased tendency to do an act from which he or she received a negative reinforcement in the form of punishment.According to Thorndike (1912; p. 164-165), the main business of thought surely is to guide and control action. To make it intelligent, adaptive, efficient, Thorndike’s Law of Effect proposed an alternative mea ns of achieving the same end. Effects, rewards and punishments, were seen as stamping actions â€Å"in† or â€Å"out† and selectively, intelligently, adaptively determining behavior (Pavlov, 1927; p. 25). The effects of a given action thus altered redirected, controlled subsequent conduct and left no place or need for thought or intellect. While Pavlov’s formulations, though different principle from those of Thorndike but similar in goal. Pavlov was likewise interested, not just in a theory of learning but also in the organism’s total behavior, in what was later referring as the principles of adaptive action. Both trial and error learning and conditioning imply adaptation to the environment but this end was achieved in both cases mechanically, non-mentalistically without thought (Pavlov, 1927; p. 25).As part of development in shaping the behavior of an individual Thorndike 1912 reported that the two-factor learning theory in its version accepted Thorndale ’s theory of habit formation, essentially unmodified and in doing so, necessarily aligned itself with the thoughtless psychologies or behavior-zoologies (Thorndike 1912; p. 164-165). In admitting fear conditioning and in developing a feedback conception of punishment, the theory disposed itself toward what has become explicit. Now response facilitation as no less a matter of conditioning and meaning change than is response inhibition. And what is more immediately important, this new position, while in some ways just as mechanical and automatic as were the views of Thorndike and Pavlov. The prototype of knowledge in general are hopes and fears, both are internal events and such are assumed to be learned and after learning, to occur in a purely automatic, involuntary manner, these are mechanism and determinism. There is no simple and direct relationship between what an organism learns and what it does. Action is the result of more or less intricate and elaborate processes inter vening between the end result of more or less intricate and elaborate processes â€Å"intervening between the end results of learning and the execution of behavior† (Thorndike 1912; p. 164-165).As described in the previous discussions, motivation and reward offers more positive effect in learning than punishment. Punishment normally directs the action to do desired behavior which results to aggression, weak learning and trauma. The incident of trauma from punishment initiated by educators is much greater than one would think. According to the study of Hyman and Zelikoff (1987; p. 11), 40 to 60 percent of college graduates remember an event of extremely retaliatory disciplinary action given by educators. In Unites States over 1,000,000 students were beaten by their teachers in 1980 (Meyer 1990; 30-47).As revealed in the study of Hyman and Zelikoff (1987), an individual that was previously abuse, beaten and punish are prone to become aggressors and criminals. Thus, the communit y should identify the significant risk factors of aggression and punishment provided by the community itself, the families that comprise the community, schools and academic institutions in the area, and individual backgrounds of the people. Moreover, the family also provides certain risk factors of aggression and punishment contributory to the development of violent attitudes and behaviors among children such as lack of oversight of children’s activities and habits, unfair and severe punishment for any misdemeanors and mistakes, conflicts between parents and children and between siblings, and parental toleration of violent behaviors.Review SynthesisFrom the given reviews concerning punishments, it is justified that parents, should very well know how to raise their children. Psychologists and researchers often recommend the use of authoritative parenting since it is well-rounded in all parenting aspects but they should be cautious in giving punishments. Since authoritative par ents have high expectations of their children, one can expect that a child will be pushed to do the best, and that authoritative parents also reciprocate love and warmth, the child can have feelings of security. Another is that a child can also have the freedom to express his own thoughts and beliefs. The relationship between parenting styles and punishment resulting to aggression is very clear. Authoritative and Permissive parents’ children often resort to aggression since the upbringing of the parents is, faulty, if you may. The resort to aggression can also be triggered by relatively high and constant exposure to aggression by family, peers and the media. Also, the cross-generational aggression can also trigger aggression. It creates an unending cycle of aggression.On the other hand, punishment given to a child in school setting should be observed by the educators to avoid weak learning effectiveness. Positive learning environment or classroom management involves the strat egies that teachers implement in preventing and handling misbehavior, using class time effectively, creating an atmosphere that encourages interest and inquiry, and permitting activities that engage students’ minds and imaginations (Slavin, 2005). Teacher should carefully observe the effect of punishments to students.   Actually, it is suggested that teacher should use rewards strategy more often than giving punishment. Teachers and students have to work together to sustain positive behaviors and effective atmosphere for learning in order to ensure the successful transmission of knowledge in the classroom.